How to reproduce
1. Open the “IN-90708-StrippingBug.zip“ project
2. Open the “SampleScene“
3. Open the Project Settings > Player > Other Settings
4. Set the “Managed Stripping Level“ to “Medium“ or “High“
5. Build and run the project

Expected result: The Player does not crash
Actual result: The Player crashes

Reproducible in: 2021.3.47f1, 2022.3.54f1, 6000.0.31f1, 6000.1.0a8

Reproduced on: Windows 11 Pro (23H2)
Not reproduced on: No other environment tested